Biohybrid systems

This chapter introduces the “biohybrid systems” section of the Handbook of Living Machines and briefly reviews some important examples of systems formed by coupling biological to engineered components. These include brain–machine interfaces, both non-invasive, using different external measurement and scanning devices, and invasive approaches focusing on implantable probes. Next we consider fabrication methods for micro- and nanobiohybrid systems and an example of a biohybrid system at the organism level, in the form of a robot–animal biohybrid, developed using methods from synthetic biology. There are many application for biohybrid systems in healthcare: we include exemplar chapters describing intelligent prostheses such as artificial hands with tactile sensing capabilities, sensory organ–chip hybrids in the form of cochlear implants, and artificial implants designed to replace damaged neural tissue and restore lost memory function.