The Idea of Freedom in Modern China Revisited

Western historiography on the idea of freedom in modern China has tended to focus on its conception as service to the state and social ends, as illustrated by studies of Liang Qichao’s democratic thought; as a result, many other interpretations have been overlooked. This article locates Chinese notions of liberty in a broader context as a fusion of personal, national, social, civic, and moral freedoms. After revisiting Liang Qichao’s conception of freedom, it posits six others that are mutually interactive—freedom as liberation; as self-development, independent personality, and responsibility; as democracy and human rights; as a spiritual cultural necessity; as a private realm; and as autonomy and self-mastery. The article offers a more nuanced understanding of the issue of the primacy of collective interests over individual interests by developing the notion of dual responsibilities, or the dualism between the sanctity of personal liberty and the public morality of service to society and state.