Jāmiʻ Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, 263-265 H/876-879 M

For over a century, Euro-American scholars and esotericists alike have heralded the thirteenth-century Spanish mystic Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 1240) as the premodern Sufi theorist of inclusi...

Philosophy in the Islamic world emerged in the ninth century and continued to flourish into the fourteenth century. It was strongly influenced by Greek thought, but Islamic philoso...

This chapter discusses two books of refutation written by two Muslim theologians, the Ashʿarite al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) and the Muʿtazilite Ibn al-Malāḥimī (d. 536/1141). Both boo...