Capacitive Probe Microscopy

AbstractA scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) combines a differential capacitance measurement with an atomic force microscope (AFM). The AFM controls the position and contact force of a scanning probe tip, and a sensor simultaneously measures the capacitance between that tip and the sample under test. The capacitance sensor can detect very small (≈10−21F) changes in capacitance. The sensor is electrically connected to an AFM cantilevered tip that has been coated with metal to make it electrically conductive. As the SCM/AFM tip is scanned across the sample surface, simultaneous images of topography and differential capacitance are obtained.Currently, the most common application of SCM is imaging the carrier concentration variations (also known as dopant profiles) qualitatively within transistors that are part of silicon integrated circuits (ICs).Another application that has encouraged the development of commercial SCMs is the need for quantitative two‐dimensional (2‐D) carrier profiling of silicon transistors.This article reviews the history, operating principles, and applications of SCM. Special emphasis is placed on measuring quantitative 2‐D carrier profiles in silicon using SCM. This article also reviews implementation and applications of the scanning capacitance spectroscopy (SCS) technique, the intermittent contact mode of SCM (or IC‐SCM), and two other techniques that can also be classified as scanning capacitance probes: the scanning Kelvin probe microscope (SKPM), when operated at twice its drive frequency, and the scanning microwave microscope (SMWM).