Geographical Intelligence

Geographical intelligence is the product arising from the collection, processing, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of geographical information, concepts, and theories about foreign or domestic entities or geographical areas. Its historical origins are probably as old as the first dispute or conflict, and it refers to intelligence with geographical content (e.g., area or country reports) and to the use of geographical technologies such as mapping, remote sensing, geographic information systems, and geosurveillance. Contemporary geospatial intelligence is known in the United States as GEOINT, defined in Title 10 USC §467 as “exploitation and analysis of imagery and geospatial information to describe, assess, and visually depict physical features and geographically referenced activities on the earth.” GEOINT is more specific and technology-oriented than geographical intelligence. Geographical intelligence in the United States is a critical component of the intelligence community (IC), most notably the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office. It is used for threat detection and assessment, informing national security policy, support for military and covert actions, and occasionally for humanitarian relief. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the United States developed superior technical capabilities to acquire imagery intelligence (IMINT) from airborne and satellite platforms such as the covert “Keyhole” spy satellite system and unmanned aerial vehicles (or “drones”). In recent years, this effort, which captures the physical terrain, is increasingly supplemented by intelligence about the “human terrain” (e.g., social values, kinship networks, or ethnicity). This has meant an increased role for human geography concepts and information. It has attracted concern, however, that it is reductive (e.g., to enemies and “good guys”) and that it involves non-IC members such as academics and contractors. Geographical intelligence is often but not always classified. Proponents of open government advocate less classification. Classified IMINT and GEOINT are occasionally leaked or can be known in general terms. Furthermore, the capacity for nongovernment actors to acquire GEOINT is blurring the line between official and unofficial geographical intelligence. Commercial entities such as DigitalGlobe supply the IC with imagery through a program called EnhancedView. Off-the-shelf drones and “balloon-mapping” now allow cheap do-it-yourself remote sensing and mapping. Mobile technologies and devices increasingly require quality digital mapping products and services. These developments, along with funding challenges after ten years of budget increases following 9/11, may significantly alter the geographical intelligence landscape. Although geographic intelligence is worldwide in scope, due to limitations in material and other reasons, this article focuses on the United States.