Catholic/Counter-Reformation

The traditional terms for the religious changes and upheavals centered in the 16th century were the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, the first referring to the Protestant Reformation in its various subdivisions, and the second referencing the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The later term emphasized the reactive nature of the Catholic Church’s response to the burgeoning Protestant movement and its spread, especially across much of northern and central Europe. The historiography of the Reformation has been transformed since the late 20th century, including the use of the term “Reformations,” stressing the equally dramatic impact of developments in both Protestantism and Catholicism in early modern Europe, as well as diversity and divisions within each of these religious denominations. The historiography on the Catholic side has particularly shifted, including the current consensus that, despite some serious problems, the late medieval church was generally vibrant and largely popular with the majority of the people of Western Christendom. At the same time, there was a wide range of individuals and movements engaged in reforms of religious life and practice, from the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life to the Observant movements in many religious orders. Thus, there was an active Catholic Reform or Reformation underway well before Luther and the onset of Protestantism. It is also true that once Lutheran, Calvinist, and other Protestant churches began to take hold by the mid-16th century, the Catholic Church launched various measures to counteract the Protestant tide via a Counter Reformation. In light of this intermixture of proactive and reactive, traditional and progressive developments, it is now common to use a more encompassing term: Early Modern Catholicism. This has the advantage of placing Catholicism at the heart of the myriad developments of the Early Modern era: the Renaissance, the Reformation, major economic and social changes, the emergence of nation-states, and overseas expansion. With regard to the current historiography, in addition to continuing interest in the Catholic heartlands of Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France, much attention has shifted to central and eastern Europe, as well as to Catholic minorities in northern Europe. Related to these topics are studies on networks, religious exiles and refugees, and religious identity. Besides the importance of Trent and the Catholic hierarchy as continuing topics of research, the new and renewed religious orders of men and women, as well as the crucial role of the laity, have moved to center stage. Our framework has also considerably broadened, across both time (into the 17th and 18th centuries) and space (the expansive Catholic overseas missions).