Augustus, Roman emperor, 63 BCE–14 CE

Augustus is often labelled as “first emperor of Rome” and “founder of the Principate”. Both descriptions hide a more complex and fluid political transformation that affected all areas of Roman society during the period when Augustus was princeps. Augustus did not owe his success entirely to his name, but his inheritance of Julius Caesar’s wealth and support from the plebs of Rome and the army were key props in his rise to power. He made himself central to the state, and people felt that Augustus was uniquely placed to ensure that the gods remained on Rome’s side. His account of his achievements in his Res Gestae demonstrates that he continued to accumulate fabulous wealth, which he then lavishly spent upon the city of Rome. He did encounter some opposition which tends to be underplayed in the sources, partly because he showed remarkable resilience in recovering from setbacks and partly because none of the incidents seriously undermined him in the long term. Augustus owed a great deal to his family and friends, who were instrumental in achieving what could be described as world conquest; his influence beyond the boundaries of the empire was also extended via the support of “friendly kings” such as Herod of Judaea and Juba of Mauretania. Undoubtedly Augustus himself was responsible for his own success, but he was helped hugely by the enthusiasm with which key messages of his rule were embraced by all levels of a society relieved to be free at last from civil wars. He oversaw the remarkable unification of the Italian peninsula, integrating the municipal aristocracy into his ruling elite at Rome, as well as the emergence of new social groups and cultural practices that promoted a sense of shared Roman political identities in the empire more generally. Key to his success was his control of the army and his continuing relationship with legionary veterans. He experienced repeated crises within his family which led to his eventually being succeeded by Tiberius.