Cupellation and litharge in their technological context at Laurion, Attika (Greece) – From Prehistoric to Hellenistic and early Roman periods

The extraction of silver and lead at Laurion started in prehistoric times and reached its peak in the classical period, it passed through crises and recoveries during the Hellenistic period and finally ceased permanently in the beginning of the Roman period. During this long period of time, the techniques used for silver extraction were adapted to the raw material available and the production scale. Among them, cupellation variants of argentiferous lead for silver production were evidenced at many locations of the wider area of Laurion, as it is shown from findings of different types of litharge and cupel forms and sizes, located close or at a greater distance from the source of the ore. In the present work, the process of cupellation is described from a scientific and technical point of view and an attempt is made to interpret the remains that were preserved on the surface or found in excavations, with regard to their technological context. The technology of the cupel of the classical period at Laurion is examined and compared with the corresponding technology of the prehistoric period and with cupels made from porous ceramics of the Middle Ages in Europe. Litharge, the waste of the cupellation process, is also thoroughly examined, since it plays a key role in the performance of the process for minimizing silver losses. But this material, even after its removal from the furnace, remained still useful in applications of technological or economic importance, to which reference or brief description is also made in the text.