Courage and Cowardice in the Roman Imperial Army

This paper examines the courage and cowardice of Roman soldiers in the period from the late first century bc to the fourth century ad, set within a broader chronological context of service in standing armies. The specific sources for Roman warfare are evaluated together with features of service in the Roman armies. Discussion of courage is based on Roman concepts of virtus and disciplina, and examines religious and ritual observance, standing formations, regional cultural traditions, diet, medical support, training and skills development, military equipment, and service rewards. Cowardice and its consequences are investigated in the contexts of surrender, desertion, and enslavement, with particular reference to the literary sources and archaeological evidence for the defeat of Varus’ army in Germany (ad 9).