Ecosystem engineers show variable impacts on habitat availability for cavity nesters in South American temperate forests

Abstract Ecosystem engineers are organisms that impact their environment and co-existing species by creating or modifying habitats, and thus they play important roles as drivers of community assembly. We examined whether cavity characteristics and/or habitat attributes associated with cavities provided by 4 ecosystem engineers influence the presence of nests of 3 secondary cavity-nesting birds—Aphrastura spinicauda (Thorn-tailed Rayadito), Tachycineta leucopyga (Chilean Swallow), and Troglodytes aedon (Southern House Wren)—and whether these variations influence their reproductive success. We tested this by: (1) assessing nest presence in cavities supplied by ecosystem engineers and (2) quantifying the reproductive success of secondary cavity nesters as a function of cavity characteristics and habitat attributes supplied by ecosystem engineers. Between 2009 and 2022, we recorded 757 cavities in 546 trees in old-growth and second-growth forests in a Global Biodiversity Hotspot in the Andes of southern Chile. Insect/fungi and Pygarrhichas albogularis (White-throated Treerunner) play a key role as the primary producers of cavities. Insect/fungi generated the cavities for 82% of A. spinicauda nests and 95% of T. aedon nests; in contrast, 57% of T. leucopyga nests were cavities excavated by P. albogularis. Characteristics of cavities (size of cavity entrance, volume, and height above ground) were associated with nest presence of secondary cavity nesters and with reproductive success of A. spinicauda and T. aedon. Habitat attributes such as tree density and canopy cover influenced nest presence for A. spinicauda and T. leucopyga, but did not correlate with the reproductive success of any secondary cavity nester. Bamboo density and forest type were related to reproductive success of A. spinicauda and T. aedon. Diameter at Breast Height of trees was related to the reproductive success of T. leucopyga. This study contributes to understanding the importance of various ecosystem engineers for the conservation of secondary cavity-nesting birds in temperate forests and beyond.