Ghana, Benin, and Togo

Abstract The post-independence political histories of Benin, Ghana, and Togo have been shaped by uneasy civil–military relations marked by rampant military interventions in politics. This chapter retraces the historical origins of national defence policies and armed forces in these countries since the end of the Cold War. It also examines the respective defence establishments, organizational structures, and civil–military relations, as well as deployments and operations. It argues that the armed forces in these countries have largely metamorphosed from praetorian forces into professional defence forces that have been involved in both domestic and regional peace operations. Successive governments have put in place coup-proofing measures that profoundly influenced the composition and behaviour of the armed forces in their respective countries. In Togo, Faure Gnassingbé’s government relies on a loyalist-stacked armed forces to remain in power. The armed forces of Benin and Ghana, meanwhile, continue to stay out of politics without necessarily being apolitical.