Challenges and Innovations in Electric Propulsion Systems for Space Transportation: A Comprehensive Review

As the demand for sustainable propulsion solutions grows in response to climate change and stringent environmental regulations, electric propulsion has emerged as a transformative technology across aerospace and maritime sectors. This paper comprehensively analyses advanced electric propulsion systems, including ion thrusters, Hall-effect thrusters, magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters, and electrospray thrusters, highlighting their capabilities and limitations. Key challenges such as power management, energy storage integration, thermal control, and system scalability are examined in detail. Additionally, recent innovations, including atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion, optimized power management strategies, and hybrid-electric architectures, are explored to assess their potential to enhance efficiency and operational reliability. The study further evaluates the application of electric propulsion in deep-space exploration, satellite manoeuvring, and next-generation aviation and maritime transport. As technological advancements continue to address existing limitations, electric propulsion is poised to play a critical role in shaping the future of sustainable and high-performance propulsion systems.