Abiotic factors influencing the health of mature Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island Pine trees) in urban coastal parks

Abstract Tree decline can significantly impact both the aesthetic value and ecological function of urban forests. Understanding the abiotic factors influencing tree health is essential for developing effective management strategies. This study investigated the decline of heritage Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island Pine) in urban areas of the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, with a focus on identifying underlying abiotic causes. General assessment was conducted along a 5-km coastal strip (including 946 trees); climate conditions on the Gold Coast and Norfolk Island were compared; and 38 selected trees of varying health status were examined in detail. This included soil physicochemical and nutrient analysis, as well as foliar nutrient profiling. Results showed that 15.8% of the 946 initially assessed trees exhibited symptoms of decline, such as dieback, browning of foliage tips, extensive defoliation and shortened foliage length. Mean temperatures on the Gold Coast were consistently higher than those in the species’ native range and the current decline followed a period of elevated temperatures and reduced rainfall. Declining trees ( n  = 32) from the subset population were found to be growing in compacted soils, with significantly elevated foliar sodium and lower foliar carbon levels compared to healthy trees ( n  = 6), indicating possible disruption of nutrient regulation. Half of the trees in the advanced stage of decline were located less than 5 m away from carparks (50%), which was higher when compared with Moderate Decline (18.7%) and very healthy Benchmarking trees (0%). Most trees in the advanced decline category were not mulched and had turfgrass as the primary groundcover (62.5%), whereas trees in moderate decline were more commonly associated with turfgrass combined with fallen branchlets (43.75%). In addition, all Benchmarking trees were located in sandy soils, whereas declining trees were more commonly associated with loam soils, which are more susceptible to compaction. Key abiotic stressors identified were extreme weather and proximity to urban infrastructure. Management recommendations include improving root zone conditions by providing irrigation during dry periods, mulching, implementing routine health monitoring to support early intervention and, for new planting, increasing distances from hard infrastructure.