Motivating the North–South continuum

This paper examines the claims made by Ledgeway (2012) concerning the existence of a North-South Continuum. After an examination of the theoretical issues in connexion with this claim, I present evidence from the Gallo-Romance area—the southern varieties of Occitan and Catalan and several northern oïl varieties, especially Wallon, Lorrain, and Norman—in an attempt to discover the motivations for the north / south distribution. I argue that the contrast represented by the be and have perfects is not only a retention of an ancient pattern, but also represents a reinvigoration of this dichotomy which occurred especially in the territory ruled by Charlemagne in the eighth and ninth centuries, coinciding with the growth of deponent use witnessed in scribal writing. Ledgeway’s northern languages thus participate in the ‘Charlemagne Sprachbund’ (van der Auwera 1998), while the southern languages lie outside its influence. I claim that the expansion of the be / have contrast resulted from the ‘roofing’ effect of Latin upon the language of speakers and writers of the eighth and ninth centuries, and that it left its mark on the languages of the Carolingian realm, Ledgeway’s northern varieties. Many of the Gallo-Romance varieties examined here provide evidence for this multi-stage development, while several participate only partially.