Toward holistic sustainability assessment of motorcycles: a systematic review

Motorcycles are a significant mode of transportation worldwide, serving both as leisure and luxury goods in industrialized countries and as affordable everyday mobility solutions in many emerging and developing regions. In the context of a more sustainable transport future, all three dimensions of sustainability, namely environmental, economic, and social must be considered. This study employs a systematic literature review (SLR) following established review protocols, screening five major scientific databases for peer reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025 to critically analyze existing research on the sustainability assessment of motorcycles using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA), and Life Cycle Costing (LCC), with a focus on social aspects. Findings reveal that environmental LCA dominates existing research, with 30 of the 33 SLR studies evaluating environmental impacts, primarily comparing internal combustion engine motorcycles with electric two wheelers. Findings show lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electric motorcycles, though battery production and electricity mix significantly influence overall results. While environmental LCAs and LCCs primarily address vehicle use and environmental impacts and costs, no dedicated full S-LCA of motorcycles as a product system was identified. Additional non-LCA social studies highlight road safety, noise, and local socioeconomic impacts as prominent social issues. The industry review shows that while some manufacturers use life cycle methodologies for carbon accounting, only two companies publicly report motorcycle LCAs, and none disclose S-LCA results. The findings reveal a significant methodological imbalance: environmental dimensions of motorcycle sustainability are increasingly studied, whereas social aspects are underexplored and treated in a fragmented context specific manner, and rarely assessed across the full life cycle. This gap is especially critical considering the globalized, resource intensive supply chains of motorcycle production and the socio-economic importance of motorcycles in low and middle income countries. The rise of electric motorcycles further amplifies the need for integrated LCSA approaches that consider human rights, working conditions in battery supply chains, and user safety. Future research, such as next steps of this research project (doctoral thesis), should focus on developing standardized social indicators for motorcycles, collecting supply chain data, and aligning sustainability communication with robust LCSA frameworks.