Sublethal doses of insecticide reduce thermal tolerance of a stingless bee and are not avoided in a resource choice test

Insecticides and climate change are among the multiple stressors that bees face, but little is known about their synergistic effects, especially for non- Apis bee species. In laboratory experiments, we tested whether the stingless bee Tetragonula hockingsi avoids insecticide in sucrose solutions and how T. hockingsi responds to insecticide and heat stress combined. We found that T. hockingsi neither preferred nor avoided sucrose solutions with either low (2.5 × 10 −4 ng µl −1 imidacloprid or 1.0 × 10 −4 ng µl −1 fipronil) or high (2.5 × 10 −3 ng µl −1 imidacloprid or 1.0 × 10 −3 ng µl −1 fipronil) insecticide concentrations when offered alongside sucrose without insecticide. In our combined stress experiment, the smallest dose of imidacloprid (7.5 × 10 −4 ng) did not significantly affect thermal tolerance (CT max ). However, CT max significantly reduced by 0.8°C (±0.16 SE) and by 0.5°C (±0.16 SE) when bees were fed as little as 7.5 × 10 −3 ng of imidacloprid or 3.0 × 10 −4 ng of fipronil, respectively, and as much as 1.5°C (±0.16 SE) and 1.2°C (±0.16 SE) when bees were fed 7.5 × 10 −2 ng of imidacloprid or 3.0 × 10 −2 ng of fipronil, respectively. Predictions of temperature increase, and increased insecticide use in the tropics suggest that T. hockingsi will be at increased risk of the effects of both stressors in the future.