Human Ecology of the Andes

Human ecology encompasses a broad field, contemplating the relationships between human societies and the biophysical environment. Investigations include anthropogenic impacts and feedback, mostly of non-Western and non-industrialized societies, or rural populations within more contemporary urban societies (see Oxford Bibliographies in Ecology article Human Ecology). The Andes is the world’s longest above-ground mountain range, a chain of mountains that runs north to south from Venezuela and Colombia to Tierra del Fuego, stretching approximately 6,000 km through the current territories of seven countries in western South America. Demarcating the Andean geographic and cultural region and subregions is problematic, evolving since colonial times (see Daniel Gade’s Nature and Culture in the Andes, cited under General Overviews). Western observation of the connections between humans and the Andean environment can be traced to 16th-century and 17th-century Spanish colonial chronicles. Reports such as Iñigo Ortiz de Zúñiga’s visit to the León de Huánuco Province in 1562 inspired modern anthropologists such as John V. Murra, who studied ecological factors affecting the development of Andean civilizations (see Land Use and Verticality and Agrarian and Exchange Systems). Murra’s ethnohistorical work on the vertical nature of Central Andean production systems around fifty years ago has deeply marked human ecological Andean studies. Earlier influences included naturalists and field researchers such as Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, German geographer Carl Troll (see General Overviews), and Peruvian archaeologist Julio C. Tello (see Defining the Andean Region). This article emphasizes human ecological research informing connections between humans and the physical environment. Sustainability and social development both emerge as major topics, more or less in conflict, especially since colonial Spanish times. The highlands of the Central Andes are the core of studies of the Andean region, and they are the main focus of this essay. Nonetheless, these questions and approaches are applicable to the whole region. Predominant attention on the Central Andes—Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia—reflects its peculiar history as the heartland of pre-Hispanic civilizations, including Inca and early colonial developments, as well as the unique domestication of flora and fauna, making this area one of the most biodiverse on the planet (see Gade 1999, cited under General Overviews). A considerable portion of recent research reflects public concern about environmental crises caused by industrialization as well as interventions based on the social and natural sciences. The Andean region illustrates these global conflicts, a place where debates on human ecology are linked with concerns about the environment’s impact on human livelihood and development as well as the biophysical footprint of anthropogenic projects. The preparation of this article was possible thanks to a research fellowship at the Central European University (CEU), supported by the Higher Education Support Program of the Open Society Foundations. The administrative work of Maja Skalar, coordinator of the fellowship program, was crucial. Substantial conversations with CEU professor László Pintér and colleagues at the Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy were important for the article organization. Megan Anderluh, assistant editor at Oxford Bibliographies, was very helpful during the article revisions. The generous support and insights from language faculty and professional translator and interpreter Patrícia Beták were essential to the completion of this work.