1868 to 1872

As the federal government established reservations across the American West, Protestant leaders argued that they were best suited to run them. Quakers, especially, claimed that America’s benevolent character could be best expressed by turning reservations over to Protestant representatives. By the early 1870s, Protestant and Catholic representatives administered dozens of reservations in what came to be known as the “Peace Policy.” Kiowas, now living on a reservation, found ways to continue their cultural practices despite the reservation’s limits and its Quaker administration. They lived nomadically, hunted for their food, and participated in a broad regional economy for buffalo hides and other trade goods. They also carried out their rites for seeking sacred power. But Quakers pushed them to farm, attend school, and remain inside reservation boundaries. And federal officials withheld food rations and incarcerated Kiowas who broke reservation regulations. Tensions grew between Kiowas and the Quakers who lived among them.