Multidimensional Infrastructure Deprivation In Urban Settings: A Comparative Analysis Across Diverse Informal Settlements

​Across the Global South, more than one billion people reside in informal settlements without adequate infrastructure. Prevailing interventions remain largely ineffective because they treat deprivation as a single construct and urban contexts as uniform. Consequently, interventions frequently miss the most deprived households. To inform more effective targeting, this study examines multidimensional infrastructure deprivation using data from 23,154 households across six Ghanaian urban cities. Specifically, the study analyses the patterns and co-occurrence of infrastructure deprivation, predictors of deprivation, and the extent of variation within urban areas. The findings revealed that sanitation was the most severe form of deprivation, affecting 70% of households (23,154). This was highest at 88% in the national capital. Water deprivation ranged from 0.1% in coastal districts to 31% in northern areas (Tamale and Bolga). Furthermore, the five dimensions were weakly correlated (r = -0.05 to 0.22), indicating that each operates through distinct processes. Also, 95% of the variation in deprivation occurred within rather than between districts (ICC = 0.046). Larger households (IRR = 1.09) and those with inadequate amenities (IRR = 1.20−1.52) were associated with a higher risk of deprivation, whereas asset ownership was protective (IRR 0.94). These findings reveal that allocating resources at the district level is ineffective, as it assumes uniform needs across administrative areas. Since deprivation varies widely within districts, this broad approach bypasses the most vulnerable households. To achieve SDG 11, policies must therefore target specific localities and distinct infrastructure gaps rather than treating the whole urban area or district as uniform.