Manes, di manes

Abstract The manes or di manes were the deified dead, whom Romans worshipped at festivals like the Parentalia , at shrines within their own homes, and in other contexts (King 1998; 2009). The word manes lacks singular forms, but it would be misleading to conclude from the plural form that the Romans did not worship (or could not conceive of) individual dead. When it was required, Romans could shift to any of several other terms with singular forms in order to convey the idea of individual dead, as Ovid ( Fast . 2.535–41) shifted from manes to the singular umbra while describing the Parentalia . They could also simply use manes as a singular word, if the context made that usage clear (e.g., Ovid Met . 6.566–70). Although there were contexts when Romans invoked collective groups of manes in rituals, as in the opening of the Mundus or the military devotio , much of Roman funerary cult focused on dead individuals who would be worshipped as manes at their specific tombs (during the Parentalia ) or at home altars. Pontifical rules established connections between dead persons and their heirs, so that the obligation of heirs to worship specific manes accompanied the inheritance (Cicero Leg . 2.48–9; Evans 1985; King 1998: 268–78). The Romans attributed various powers to manes including the ability to extend worshippers' lives beyond what fate had decreed, to send messages in dreams, to enforce sworn oaths, and, in certain contexts like the military devotio , to kill enemies (King 2009; 1998: 336–80).