Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia

The reign of Peter I of Russia (between the years 1682 and 1689 and continuing until 1725) and its impact on Russian development are among the most studied and most controversial topics in early modern Russian history. His reign is often portrayed as instrumental in dragging a “backward” Russia into the modern European world through profound cultural and military reform. Those years have also been castigated as the apotheosis of statism, years of progress through coercion that retained the fundamental principles of the traditional regime and strengthened the grip of serfdom (Anisimov 1993 and Kamenskii 1997, both cited under Question of Reform). After the seven-year regency of his half-sister, Peter claimed power in 1689 with his joint-tsar and brother. The reform of the Russian army and the creation of a navy were Peter’s dominant concerns. The army conquered the Ottoman Black Sea fort of Azov on a second try in 1696, with the help of a newly formed navy. Peter’s 1698 trip to Europe did not support continued war against the Porte, but led to the creation of an anti-Swedish coalition among Russia, Denmark, and Poland-Lithuania/Saxony. The lengthy Great Northern War against Sweden, 1700–1721, began disastrously in 1700 but concluded with military victory (most notably at Poltava in 1709) and with growing European acknowledgement of Russia’s importance. Even in the midst of war, Peter and his inner coterie launched reforms intended to systematize Russian national administrative and military life. Until after the 1711 Russian loss to the Ottomans, the rapidity of change, the turnover of personnel, and the overlap of new and old institutions often undermined the implementation and effectiveness of reform. Thereafter, reforms restructured the central and local government, often adapting Swedish models, introduced the infamous soul tax, developed state-sponsored manufacturing, and reformed the Orthodox Church. Meanwhile, as Romaniello 2019 (cited under Economy) emphasizes, Russian Eurasian trade remained important, particularly in international competition with the United Kingdom, throughout the 18th century; so did eastward expansion and exploration. But cultural norms for the elite changed as Peter insisted on the Europeanization of education, cultural forms, and gender roles. The onslaught of reform from above met resistance and rebellion. There was armed rebellion among the Bashkirs, led by Bulavin. At court, blatant disregard for established conceptions of elite collaboration with the Crown led many to support Peter’s son, Aleksei, as an alternative to his father. Political police and fiscal enforcers became entrenched, even as the maturing of a generation raised in service to a reformed state helped to balance the political system. From outside the machinery of state, such efforts entrenched serfdom and solidified a developing absolutism. They also transformed Russia culturally, socially, and politically, not always following in Europe’s footsteps, but fully “glorious” in the 18th-century sense; Peter became and remained a symbol of national achievement and power.