Assessing the application of landmark-free morphometrics to macroevolutionary analyses

Abstract The study of phenotypic evolution has been transformed by methods allowing three-dimensional quantification of anatomical form. The present state-of-the-art 3D geometric morphometrics, which relies heavily on manual landmarking, is time-consuming, prone to operator bias, and cannot effectively compare disparate shapes. Emerging automated approaches, notably landmark-free techniques, offer promise but have only been applied to closely related species. Here, we compare landmark-free approaches with high-density geometric morphometric methods on 322 mammals across 180 families. Leveraging the benefits of Poisson meshes, which combine open and closed projections, we show how landmark-free methods have greater power to differentiate major taxonomic groups. Although there is coarse correspondence in shape variation between the two methods, the finer features of the landmark-free approach likely reflect its broader sampling of the surface structure. Our study underscores the robustness of landmark-free methods for large-scale comparative analysis and helps propel morphometrics into a new era of bigger data.