Kinematic Parameters of the Kick Start: A Systematic Review

a systematic review was conducted using Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and EBSCO. The primary search term kick start was combined with swimming, swimming start, biomechanics, and performance. After screening 665 studies and applying the inclusion criteria, 18 studies analysing kick-start kinematics were included. This research is part of VEGA project No. 1/0462/22, titled “The effect of starting block configuration on the kinematic parameters affecting starting performance in swimming.” The review highlights differences across the block, flight, underwater, and swim phases by gender, swimming style, and performance level. Across studies, block time ranged from 0.68–0.91 s in junior swimmers, 0.66–0.72 s in senior swimmers, and 0.59–0.72 s in elite swimmers. Elite swimmers also achieved take-off horizontal velocities of 4.37–4.58 m·s⁻¹. The start performance at 15 m was 6.31–6.72 s in senior and 6.33–6.41 s in elite swimmers compared with 6.94–7.09 s in junior competitive swimmers, with women being approximately 1 s slower. Technique modifications associated with faster early-race performance consistently included kick-plate settings 3–4 and neutral-/rear-weighted set positions; a narrow stance improved time to 5 m by 0.08 s compared with a wide stance, and faster starters demonstrated a higher hip position at the start signal (1.56±0.05 m vs. 1.45±0.05 m). Findings provide valuable insights for swimmers and coaches, aiding in technique refinement. Given its use in elite competitions, optimising the kick start can lead to measurable performance gains, reinforcing the need for targeted training approaches.