Skeuomorphism in Neolithic amber craft: imitations of the heads of axes and battle‑axes

Among amber artefacts originating in the Neolithic period (ca. 4000–1750 BCE) in the western and southern regions of the Baltic Sea basin are imitations of axeheads and hammerheads. These objects replicate tools that, during that era, were typically crafted from flint, stone, and occasionally copper. This trend in amber craftsmanship, based on imitating human-made objects, marks a significant departure from the Mesolithic artistic tradition (9th–5th millennium BCE), during which representations in amber predominantly depicted elements of the natural world, foremost animals. Amber skeuomorphs of axe- and hammerheads began to appear around 3300 BCE within the Funnel Beaker, Globular Amphora, Corded Ware, and Battle Axe cultures. These items faithfully reproduce the shapes of their flint and stone counterparts characteristic of the archaeological cultures listed above. However, they are also generally smaller in size and feature perforations, suggesting their intended use as adornments – such as beads or pendants for necklaces – rather than functional tools. Given these attributes and the physical properties of amber, these objects could not have served practical purposes akin to their stone, flint, or metal prototypes. In addition to their decorative role, these amber artefacts likely carried symbolic meanings, referencing the tools they imitate – tools that may also have functioned as weapons. While flint axes were utilitarian implements essential for daily labour, and thus highly valued by Neolithic farming communities in the densely forested landscapes of Northern Europe, stone battle axes appear to have transcended mere practicality. Often elaborately decorated, with blunt edges and perforations too small for effective handles, they are interpreted by some scholars as ceremonial or symbolic weapons. Nevertheless, examples of more utilitarian stone axes bearing signs of damage and repair are also known, indicating that such items may sometimes indeed have been used in work or combat. However, determining the specific impacts of strikes to soft tissue or bone on such tools remains methodologically challenging. Archaeological evidence points to a period of societal disruption among Neolithic communities linked to climatic changes at the end of the 4th millennium BCE – coinciding with the emergence of the first amber skeuomorphs. Under these conditions, processes such as migration, competition for land, and armed conflict likely intensified. Amber, as a rare and visually striking mate rial, fashioned into forms evoking axe- or hammerheads traditionally used within specific communities, may have served as a medium for expressing group identity and social affiliation. The symbolic resonance of these items likely extended into the spiritual realm. Linguistic studies, for example, suggest that words such as “thunder” and “sky” may derive from terms originally associated with “sharpened stone/ flint tools”. Cosmological beliefs and conceptions of the forces governing the world permeated social life, and through their symbolic associations, axes and hatchets could have functioned as insignia or talismans among individuals or groups seeking authority or prestige. Current research does not yet allow for a definitive interpretation of the roles and meanings of amber beads and pendants shaped as axe- and hammerheads. It remains unclear whether amber beads and pendants shaped like axe- and hammerheads had a single, fixed role and meaning, or whether their symbol ism and use were broader.