Bronze Production and Lead Resource Circulation in the Yuhuangmiao Culture of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty

Abstract The Yuhuangmiao Culture, an important archaeological culture, distributed in northern Hebei, dates from the Middle Spring and Autumn period to the Middle Warring States period. It is regarded as a key representative example of the Late Bronze Age in northern China. This paper presents findings from a project conducted by the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, which re-evaluated artifacts excavated artefacts from significant Yuhuangmiao sites, particularly the Manzigou Cemetery and the Paotaishan Cemetery. The study focused on various bronze samples, which underwent multiple analytical techniques, including metallurgical microscopy, ultra-deep field microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). These methods allowed for an in-depth analysis of bronze production of bronze and the origins of the lead materials used. The results indicate that the bronze artifacts from the Manzigou Cemetery display features akin to the Upper Xajiadian Culture during the early stages of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, although they still contain some copper arsenic. Interestingly, the lead sources differ from those in the Upper Xajiadian Culture. By the maturity phase of the Yuhuangmiao Culture, a casting system for a copper-tin-lead ternary alloy was established. However, there is no evidence of bronze production involving the complex copper-tin-arsenic-lead (and silver) coproducts typical of the Upper Xajiadian Culture, although signs of lead production are present. The evidence suggests that bronze production primarily utilized B lead, supplemented by C lead sources from the Central Plains. The influence of the Central Plains culture is particularly notable in the Paotaishan Cemetery from the Warring States period, where the varied lead materials demonstrate multiple sources highlight the substantial impact of Central Plains lead on local practices.