Islamic Calligraphy

In Islamic contexts, khatt, or calligraphy, refers to the intricate art of inscribing texts written in Arabic script in aesthetically appealing styles and forms. Scholars and practitioners use different terms to describe the practice. Some refer to it as “Arabic calligraphy” due to the script employed. Others, however, prefer the broader term “Islamic calligraphy” to also recognize the other languages employing Arabic script (e.g., Persian, Urdu, Pashtu, Ottoman Turkish, Malay) and the diverse cultures that the calligraphic works inscribed in these languages represent. Further distinctions are made through designations such as “North African calligraphy,” “Persian calligraphy,” and “Ottoman calligraphy,” which denote dynastic and regional idiosyncrasies. Since the advent of Islam in the seventh century, calligraphy has been an integral part of Muslim intellectual pursuits, from literature, theology, and philosophy to music, astronomy, and medicine. As early as Late Antiquity, thanks to its visual appeal and applicability to varied subjects, Islamic calligraphy transcended cultural, linguistic, and religious boundaries, and attained prestige beyond Muslim territories, particularly in Christian Europe. There, from the late tenth century on and throughout the Renaissance, calligraphic inscriptions featured in Arabic script were incorporated into the decorative programs of religious and non-religious architectural monuments, luxury objects, and paintings. Islamic calligraphy is a living tradition preserved by present-day calligraphers, one which has been expanded by modern and contemporary artists, including graphic designers. Islamic calligraphy has moreover adapted to technological developments and an array of media, including painting, printing, sculpture, photography, installation, street art, and digital art. The conceptual ambitions of modern and contemporary artists are equally as diverse, engaging with notions of personal, ethno-linguistic, and national identity, as well as cultural, social, and political critique. This bibliography begins with General Overviews, followed by Primary Sources, and Catalogues and Surveys. Studies that are concerned with specific themes are organized under four headings: History, Aesthetics, Function and Meaning, and Cultural Heritage. History includes works on the development of the practice and individual artists. Aesthetics presents a compilation of sources on terminology, tools, media, style, design, and creative process, and works exploring Islamic calligraphy’s often misunderstood relationship with figurative painting and decorative arts. Scholarship investigating the social, political, cultural, and religious contexts of the practice, and its theoretical interpretations is listed under Function and Meaning. Finally, Cultural Heritage includes publications on issues of ownership and protection of calligraphic works. This bibliography prioritizes studies that take calligraphy as their main topic and limits itself to secondary sources in English and primary sources available in English translations. Catalogues without interpretive essays and instructional and technical manuals for practitioners are excluded.