Ethics

Professional ethics in anthropology reflects general moral principles regarding what one should not do and what one should do. However, in practice the emphasis is mostly on the negative; trying to avoid causing harm, and most of all to research subjects. Often concern with ethics within anthropology is more reactive than proactive. Also, it tends to be more a matter of defensive maneuvering to save face in public for the individuals and organizations involved, rather than grappling with issues let alone resolving them constructively and conclusively. Ethical concerns intensify during periods when scandals and/or controversies erupt, especially if they reach the general public to embarrass the profession. In the history of anthropology during the twentieth century into the present, many of the ethical controversies erupted about research associated with war, especially secret and/or clandestine activities. Politics is usually involved too, aggravating the difficulty and heat. However, there are also numerous and diverse cases beyond war because ethical challenges, dilemmas, and choices are inevitable. Yet when all is said and done, the ethical conduct of an anthropologist ultimately remains mostly a matter of personal morality, conscience, and integrity as well as adherence to ethical codes. Whole courses on professional ethics are rarely offered in departments of anthropology at universities and colleges for undergraduate or even for graduate majors as an elective, let alone requirement. Yet an abundance of literature and ethics codes are readily available for individuals to read, contemplate, discuss, and debate. Since the 1990s, and especially during the 2000s, there has been a marked increase in attention to professional ethics in anthropology. Much of this is one of the positive results of the controversy ignited by investigative journalist Patrick Tierney’s book Darkness in El Dorado, although there were also many negative consequences. Subsequently, the Human Terrain System, wherein anthropologists were embedded with the US military during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, ignited further controversy. This article focuses on professional ethics in cultural anthropology in the United States because of limited space. The emphasis is on books, rather than on journal articles, because the accumulating literature is enormous and books contain bibliographies for further research. Also, for journal articles and other sources, search Abstracts in Anthropology, Academic Search Complete, Annual Review of Anthropology, Anthropology Index Online, AnthroSource, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and ProQuest.