Sublethal Predation

Sublethal predation is distinguished from lethal predation by survival of the prey. Predators may injure or only partially consume prey, and such injury and loss of biomass can influence the condition, behavior, growth, reproduction and ultimate survival of the prey. Sublethal predation is widespread among terrestrial, aquatic, and marine habitats, and the fossil record is replete with examples of trace fossils, scarred appendages, drilled and repaired shells that have been attributed to sublethal predation. Some animals cast off body parts in response to attempted or threatened predation (e.g., lizard tails, crab claws, brittlestar arms), and such autotomy has costs and benefits for individuals and influences ecological interactions. Regeneration, or regrowth of lost tissues, is a common response to injury caused by sublethal predation, autotomy, and other sources, although the ability to regenerate is highly variable across taxa. Considerable research has been focused on understanding the mechanisms and evolution of regeneration and this has been informed by the many reports of regeneration by taxonomically diverse animals as a response to sublethal predation. Sublethal predation has several synonyms. It has been described as grazing, browsing or cropping, especially with reference to plants, but also with reference to marine infauna; as incomplete predation, often in reference to fossils; as partial predation; and as unsuccessful predation. In this bibliography, parasitism is not considered sublethal predation, although some interesting examples of interacting effects of parasitism and sublethal predation will be discussed. Just as predation is a significant selective force, sublethal predation can have profound impacts on the ecology and evolution of organisms. This bibliography will highlight the evolutionary context of sublethal predation, including evidence for sublethal predation in the fossil record, its role in ecological interactions, ways in which environmental factors influence sublethal predation and organisms’ responses to it, and finally, provide an introduction to research on sublethal predation among major taxa that experience it. The works cited were selected to provide examples from multiple perspectives and to highlight both foundational work and more recent investigations.