The access-quality paradox: Examining the disconnect between financial inputs and learning outcomes in Zambia’s free education policy

The implementation of Free Education Policies (FEPs) is a central strategy for achieving inclusive and equitable quality education (SDG 4) in low- and middle-income countries. However, the relationship between enhanced public funding and improved academic performance is often paradoxical. This mixed-methods study investigates this paradox within the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. Analyzing survey data from 228 stakeholders (teachers, administrators, learners, and union representatives) and integrating perspectives from key civil society organizations: Zambia National Education Coalition (ZANEC), Forum for African Women Educationalists of Zambia (FAWEZA), the Campaign for Female Education (CAMFED), and the National Action for Quality Education in Zambia (NAQEZ), the research reveals that while the policy has successfully boosted enrollment and access (evidenced by a 95% survey response rate), it has simultaneously strained the education system. Quantitative findings demonstrate critical infrastructural deficits (e.g., a mean score of 1.82 for classroom spaciousness) and inconsistent resource availability. Qualitative data highlight systemic bottlenecks: overcrowded classrooms, delayed fund disbursement, and overburdened teachers. Triangulated with stagnant national examination trends, the evidence indicates that financial inputs are insufficient to produce gains in academic performance without parallel investment in enabling conditions for quality. The study concludes that the Zambian case exemplifies a critical policy gap where investment in access has not been matched by investment in the enabling conditions for quality. We argue for a fundamental shift toward integrated policy frameworks that explicitly link funding to quality assurance metrics, infrastructure development, and systemic capacity building. Drawing on a systems-thinking lens, the study demonstrates that Zambia’s Free Education Policy has expanded access without commensurate gains in learning outcomes due to systemic capacity constraints across infrastructure, human resources, and school management. The findings advance theories on implementing education policy by showing that fee abolition alone is insufficient and that sustainable improvements require integrated, quality-oriented investments that align access with learning conditions.