Assessing the impact of disease on pollinators

Pests and pathogens are a major factor in the health and wellbeing of pollinators. We provide a brief review of the major pests and pathogens of three important insect pollinator taxa of crop plants: honey bees (Apis spp.), bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and other wild bees. For honey bees, the varroa mite (Varroa destructor)-Deformed wing virus (ectoparasitic vector-pathogen) nexus is likely the major cause of poor health and survival. For bumble bees and other wild bee species, pests and pathogens also play an important role in determining the health of individuals, though their impact on host populations is poorly known. Pathogen spillover, the interspecific transmission of pathogens, is a current and future threat to all three pollinator taxa. We highlight some of the current methods and approaches to controlling pests and pathogens. Disease-causing organisms need to be taken seriously in the management and promotion of pollinators and their pollination services.