The Rising Burden of Oxidative Stress in the Modern Era: Pathophysiological Insights into Immunity, Free Radical Formation, and Stress-Induced Cellular Damage

Background:Chronic stress has emerged as a widespread health issue in the modern era, contributing significantly to immune suppression and oxidative stress. The imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant defense mechanisms plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of various chronic diseases. Objective:To explore and synthesize current literature on the relationship between psychological stress, weakened immunity, and the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying oxidative stress and cellular damage. Methods:A comprehensive literature review was conducted using data from peer-reviewed journals published between 2000 and 2024. Databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched using keywords including ―oxidative stress,‖ ―free radicals,‖ ―immunity,‖ ―chronic stress,‖ and ―ROS.‖ Studies discussing the role of the HPA axis, immune dysregulation, and environmental factors in oxidative damage were included. Results:The literature highlights that chronic psychological and environmental stressors activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in persistent glucocorticoid release. This impairs immune responses, enhances ROS formation, and leads to cumulative cellular injury. Contributing factors such as pollution, poor nutrition, and sedentary lifestyles further exacerbate oxidative stress. The consequences include endothelial dysfunction, neurodegeneration, cancer progression, and accelerated aging. Conclusion:Oxidative stress, amplified by modern stressors and compromised immunity, is a central factor in the etiology of several chronic illnesses. Multidisciplinary approaches involving antioxidant therapy, lifestyle interventions, and stress reduction techniques are essential for prevention and management.