The Sophists

Sophistês (from sophos, “wise”) originally designated epic poets, prophets, sages, Presocratic philosophers and others with wisdom beneficial to society. Sometime after c. 450 bce it was applied to a new kind of wise people. These men were professional showmen and teachers, the first to provide education beyond the traditional basic subjects—music, poetry, physical training, and arithmetic. They were entrepreneurs, rivals, and competitors who expected to be paid. They traveled from city to city, charging fees for teaching and for their public performances. Each Sophist taught whatever subjects he wished, subjects ranging from mathematics and astronomy to grammar and literary criticism. Many Sophists had interests in language and taught techniques of reasoning, argument, and public speaking that could be useful in public and private life. They came from different cities in the Greek world. They were regarded as attractive and fascinating, but suspicious and dangerous, attitudes reflected in literature, most prominently in Plato’s writings. Plato contrasts individual Sophists with Socrates and sophistry with philosophy. The negative connotations of “sophistry,” “sophism,” and “sophist” are due ultimately to Plato’s influence and should not lead us to suppose that the Sophists engaged in and taught nothing but how to reason badly and construct misleading arguments. They were important in many areas. To them is due the beginnings of the study of language and speech, which stands at the origins of grammar and rhetoric. Others puzzled about the gods and the origins of religion. Some contributed to mathematics. Most importantly, they stand at the origins of moral, political and social philosophy, anthropology, and political theory. Plato’s negative portrayal dominated until the 20th century and the few exceptions interpreted the Sophists uncritically as forerunners of their own philosophical views. Study of the Sophists requires access to information about them, not just to the interpretations of others. This information falls into three sorts: (1) Actual words of the Sophists—complete works and excerpts from works that do not survive in their entirety; (2) summaries and paraphrases of their works; (3) reports in ancient authors of their views and other information about them; and (4) interpretations by ancient and modern authors. The first three sorts form the basis of valid research. They were collected for the first time in 1903 by Diels—Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 6th ed. (1952)—which remains the basic reference point. The Sophists have been viewed from many angles which cannot all be represented adequately in this bibliography, which is intended as a guide to books and articles useful for understanding who the Sophists were, their methods, aims, and achievements, how they were viewed in antiquity, and their contributions to philosophical thought.