Catherine de' Medici

Catherine de’ Medici (b. 1519–d. 1589), wife of Henri II (r. 1547–1559) and mother of François II, Charles IX, and Henri III, never ruled in her own right, but she was perhaps the most influential—and controversial—figure at the center of French politics during one of the most troubled periods in French history. The combination of her lack of official authority and the difficulties created by religious civil war have shaped responses to Catherine since her lifetime. Some historians, picking up on contemporary attitudes, have been critical of her for failing to understand the significance of religion to most of her contemporaries. Inclined toward limited toleration, Catherine was considered irreligious by some at a time when Catholic orthodoxy was increasingly seen as a crucial aspect of social order. Critics in her lifetime and since have painted Catherine as Machiavellian in her politics because of her repeated attempts to end civil war through negotiation. Despite efforts to rehabilitate Catherine for managing reasonably well under extremely difficult circumstances, historians regard her as responsible to some degree for the troubles of the French state in the latter half of the sixteenth century. Crucially, because Catherine served as regent for Charles IX (r. 1560–1574) and remained a senior advisor to both Charles and his brother, Henri III (r. 1574–1589), her political influence was significant for three decades. Because Charles started his reign underage, Catherine was effectively ruling when religious tensions erupted into open warfare. The monarchy had neither the military nor the economic resources to impose peace on the combatants. The compromises that Catherine supported satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants, although it should be emphasized that when the Wars of Religion were settled in 1598 by Henri IV (r. 1589–1610), the structure of the peace was very much along the lines that Catherine had always advocated. Given the political and economic difficulties, historians have tended to regard the period of Catherine’s influence as one in which the French monarchy was weak and ineffectual. As recent studies have demonstrated, the monarchy was actually committed to reforms of various kinds. Catherine’s sons restructured aspects of royal authority, including the management of noble elites, local political structures in towns, and the administration of justice. In the cultural life of the realm, Catherine utilized artistic patronage to further political messaging in ways that became integral to monarchical political practice. Her support of pictorial arts, architecture, tapestries, and ceremonial arts modeled how to convey political, social, and cultural messaging for different kinds of audiences. Catherine de’ Medici was neither the cause of the ills that plagued France in the late sixteenth century, nor completely free of responsibility for those ills. She was often able to find ways to facilitate peace, whether through negotiation, distribution of political patronage, or utilizing her authority as queen mother. But the fact that she repeatedly needed to facilitate peace, calm the troubled waters, and recall important noble families to their obligations to the king and kingdom meant that she was recurrently exposed to criticism.