Putting rakali in the spotlight: innovative methods for detecting an elusive semi-aquatic mammal

Context Freshwater ecosystems rank among the most threatened environments on Earth. Monitoring aquatic and semi-aquatic species is vital to informing conservation of freshwater ecosystems. However, many semi-aquatic mammals can be difficult to detect with conventional survey methods. Aims We aimed to identify the most effective survey method for detecting an Australian semi-aquatic mammal, the rakali (Hydromys chrysogaster). Methods We compared rakali detection rates among camera-trapping, live-trapping and visual surveys, and tested the influence of camera angle, trap proximity to water and time of survey, across the Yanco Creek system in southern New South Wales. Key results Nocturnal spotlight surveys were the most effective method for detecting rakali, with most observations occurring while individuals were foraging or swimming in the water. Camera traps facing a floating platform and cage traps mounted on floating platforms performed better than those deployed on land. Downward-facing camera traps detected rakali three times more often than did forward-facing cameras. Trapping rakali was unreliable, with the species detected at fewer than half of the sites where presence was confirmed via visual observation and camera traps. For species absence to be determined with 95% confidence, 2–4 weeks of nightly trapping is required, compared with six nights of visual surveys or 12 nights for a platform-facing camera. Morning visual surveys were largely ineffective because of predominantly nocturnal rakali activity and difficulty in detecting signs in creek environments. Conclusions The likelihood of detecting rakali can be maximised through the use of nightly spotlighting and deployment of baited camera traps focussed on platforms or natural resting areas within a water body. Implications Understanding the effectiveness of each method is essential for developing species-appropriate protocols for population monitoring. Our findings present suitable options to be further explored among the 100-plus small (<1 kg) semi-aquatic mammals worldwide that share similar behaviours and characteristics to the rakali, many of which are threatened or data deficient.