Canadian Government and Politics

Canada is a federation established in 1867. Originally designed to have a very powerful federal government, Canada is now one of the most decentralized federations in the world. Provinces have significant constitutionally assigned exclusive legislative and administrative powers in key policy sectors like health care and education, and they have significant capacity to raise their own revenues. A central piece to Canadian federalism is the equalization program, whose principles are enshrined in the Canadian Constitution and which allows provincial governments to offer public services of comparable quality at a comparable level of taxation by providing payments to provinces whose fiscal capacity falls below a national average. A constitutional monarchy, Canada functions with a Westminster parliamentary system. At the federal level, the legislative branch is bicameral, comprising the House of Commons and the Senate. Senators are appointed by the prime minister and, as a result, the Senate suffers from a democratic deficit that effectively prevents it from exercising its full constitutional powers. The Liberal Party of Canada (LPC) has dominated federal politics, forming most governments, with the Conservative Party of Canada (CPC), along with its predecessor, the Progressive-Conservative Party of Canada, being the only other parties that have governed the country. Thanks in large part to the uninominal majoritarian electoral system used both federally and in the ten provinces, governments in Canada usually involve one party commanding a parliamentary majority, although minority governments at the federal level have been a more frequent occurrence in the twenty-first century. Party discipline in Canada is among the strongest in the world, which facilitates the formation of stable governments but represents a significant obstacle for members of Parliament seeking to represent their constituents. Canada’s foundational cleavage is between English and French speakers, which is reflected in official bilingualism, legislated in 1969. This cleavage is still, in its modern form, at the center of Canadian politics, as Quebec, the only province with a majority of French speakers, has a powerful nationalist movement and has long sought changes to the Canadian Constitution in a way that would recognize its distinctiveness. Canada is a settler society, and Indigenous peoples, who have endured a long history of colonialism, put forth claims related to territorial rights and self-determination. Beginning with the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which stipulated that all land was Indigenous until ceded through treaties, the legitimate instrument for managing the territorial relationship between Indigenous peoples and the state has been treaties (first, the so-called numbered treaties, and since 1975, the “modern treaties”). Canada is widely known for its multiculturalism policy, formulated in 1971, which encourages Canadians from different backgrounds to retain their cultural identities. Central to Canadian politics is a Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which serves as a legal basis for Canadians to put forth rights claims. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms has helped, to varying degrees, different minorities (gender, sexual orientation, racial, Indigenous peoples) struggle for equality and against discrimination.