Systematic Social Observation Methodologies and Modalities in Criminology and Criminal Justice

Abstract Many important topics in social science fields like criminology and criminal justice are difficult to measure. Interactions between people and corresponding dialogue, or visual signs, signals, and indicators present in environments of interest, are often not administratively recorded or readily amenable for research and analysis. The inherent challenges present in researching social phenomena make conducting observational studies difficult, which thereby limits the ability to functionally deploy quantitative and qualitative approaches simultaneously. However, a flexible and ever-evolving research technique, systematic social observation (SSO), has a proven track record of working to bridge the gap in understanding complex topics through a range of mixed-method research techniques that facilitate more direct observations of pre-identified variables of interest. The applications of SSO in criminology and criminal justice have been thoroughly demonstrated in the past across a variety of topical contexts and observational modalities and have shown the propensity to exponentially increase into the future. SSO is a research method used to study human behavior, actions, and environments of interest using a pre-defined coding schema. Following the identification of characteristics and features of interest that can be reliably observed within the selected visual medium, SSO can be used to facilitate a more direct and natural evaluation of social phenomena—even in instances in which native setting observation has previously proven challenging. SSO has far-reaching utility, largely because of its multimodal flexibility in conducting observations in-person, through videos or photos, or via other remote and Web-based media platforms, apps, and technologies. The mixed-method nature of SSO allows researchers to first qualitatively assess concepts and mechanisms that generally reflect elusive constructs that exist beyond the scope of traditional databases through structured observations. Then, the recorded observations can be quantitatively scored and analyzed to answer a wide range of research questions. The exploratory sequential mixed-method procedure of SSO enables a more direct and accurate collection of data, analysis of key variables, and interpretation of results. Results from SSO research have been found to be a reliable, valid, and credible way to study complex topics in both criminology and criminal justice, with research consistently corroborating the legitimacy of SSO across all modal types. Prior-use cases of SSO have applied the technique in person to study interactions and dynamics in police and citizen use of force encounters; used videos and photos to understand events like drug market transactions; and leveraged innovative remote capacities like Google Earth and Google Street View to better understand high crime environments at micro-level crime hot spots. The continued proliferation of SSO across different topical applications and observational modalities has the capacity to continually, and meaningfully, expand field knowledge.