Underground warfare in the Jewish-Roman military conflict (Province of Judaea, 63 BCE–136 CE): New insights and geological context

ABSTRACT The utilization of underground space for combat purposes is known from many periods and regions in the world. One of the most prominent and best studied examples for the use of subterranean spaces as part of military conflict is the caves in the province of Judaea that were used by the Jewish rebels in their guerrilla warfare against Rome. These caves were divided into two principal types: natural refuge caves and artificial hiding complexes. Dozens of previously unknown refuge caves and hiding complexes were discovered throughout Israel in the past decade, allowing an update of their typology, chronology, geographic distribution, and function in the various military conflicts, as well as refinement of the discussion relating to the military tactics and strategies of the Jewish forces. This chapter presents a comprehensive study of the development and use of underground space by the Jewish rebels in both broad chronological and geomilitary contexts. An examination of the latest information with a focus on the characteristics of the bedrock demonstrates the great influence of the geological setting on the ways in which the underground spaces were developed and utilized by the rebels, for both defensive and offensive purposes. This distinctive use of underground spaces by Jewish rebels in their struggles against Rome appears to have resulted from a convergence of geological, technological, military, and cultural factors—driven above all by the imperatives of survival and a prolonged process of tactical adaptation.