State of the art of lower limb prosthesis simulators: A literature review

Abstract Individuals with limb loss present significant challenges to testing and evaluating prosthetic devices, such as medical approval processes and participant availability. Prosthesis simulators, designed for mimicking prosthesis use with able-bodied individuals, offer an alternative to conducting controlled experiments and enhancing the development of prosthetic technologies. This review examines the design features, applications, and limitations of lower limb prosthesis simulators. A literature search identified 73 studies that have used lower limb prosthesis simulators. Most studies have focused on transfemoral prosthesis simulators (TFsims) and testing prosthetic designs and control mechanisms. The most frequently assessed movement was walking, while other movements, were explored only sporadically. The findings reveal significant variability in simulator configurations, training protocols, and the range of movements assessed. Additionally, a notable research gap exists in evaluations of the effect of transtibial prosthesis simulators (TTsims) and hip disarticulation prosthesis simulators (HDsims) on gait. Despite these challenges, prosthesis simulators offer promising potential for accelerating and improving prosthesis development while putting less stress on the relatively small target group of individuals with limb loss. Further research is needed to standardize methodologies and better understand the effects of simulator design and training on gait performance to facilitate advancements in prosthetic research.