Educational Wargaming in Higher Education: A Review of Empirical Studies

Educational wargaming has gained increasing attention in higher education and professional military education as a form of experiential and game-based learning. Despite this growing interest, empirical research on educational wargaming remains fragmented. This article presents a semi-systematic review of empirical studies on educational wargaming published between 2014 and 2024. In addition to mapping empirical research, the review introduces a conceptual framework for analysing how learning is articulated, operationalized, and theoretically grounded. Across fifteen peer-reviewed studies, the review examines three interrelated questions: what contexts, game formats, and learning objectives characterize educational wargaming; how learning is conceptualized, operationalized, and empirically examined; and how learning theory is integrated with wargaming theory and practice. The analysis draws on the Presage–Process–Product (3P) model to structure comparisons across research designs, educational settings, and game formats. The findings show variation in how educational wargaming is designed and studied. While many studies report positive learning outcomes, such as increased engagement, improved decision-making skills, and conceptual understanding, approaches to assessing learning are often inconsistent and limited. The review identifies gaps in the literature, including longitudinal research, insufficient attention to facilitation and debriefing processes, and weak integration between wargaming practices and learning theory.