A New Method for Calculating Manganese Content and Determining Appropriate Manganese Levels in Foods

Calculating the manganese content per 100 kcal, 100 g or 100 mL, or the reference amount customarily consumed (RACC) of food shows the manganese content of some foods inappropriately. So, making some food choices based on them to achieve adequate manganese intake may increase the risks of some chronic diseases. Calculating the manganese content and determining appropriate manganese levels (to achieve adequate manganese intake) based on U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), and the proposed method were performed in 6,489 food items. Making some food choices based on the FDA and CAC per serving (the serving is derived from the RACC) or CAC per 100 g or 100 mL to achieve adequate manganese intake exceeded energy needs, which could lead to overweight or obesity. Making some food choices based on the CAC per 100 kcal or CAC per 100 g or 100 mL to achieve adequate manganese intake did not meet manganese requirements, which could lead to manganese deficiency. Some foods that met manganese requirements were not appropriate food choices based on the CAC per 100 g or 100 mL or CAC per serving to achieve adequate manganese intake. On the basis of the proposed method, calculating the manganese content and determining appropriate manganese levels in foods are performed by considering RACCs and the energy content of foods. Thus, making food choices based on the proposed method met manganese requirements and did not exceed energy needs. About 97.8% of foods contained manganese. On the basis of the proposed method, the average (%) of foods containing appropriate manganese levels in food groups was 31.37%, of which 15.08% was the average of manganese source (good source of manganese) foods, and 16.29% was the average of high manganese (excellent source of manganese) foods. Legumes and legume products with 92.27%, nut and seed products with 87.12%, meals, entrees, and side dishes with 78.43%, breakfast cereals with 74.05%, cereal grains and pasta with 72.73%, snacks with 61.97%, vegetables and vegetable products with 44.43%, soups, sauces, and gravies with 41.36%, and baked products with 38.57% had the highest averages of foods containing appropriate manganese levels. The highest amounts of manganese were found in beef liver, protein shake (manganese-fortified), nutrition shake (manganese-fortified), infant formula (manganese-fortified), dried Chinese jujube, breakfast cereal (made with germ, bran, or whole grain containing an appropriate manganese level), instant tea, blue mussel, fireweed leaves, beef tripe, lemon grass, teff, blueberries, hazelnuts or filberts, pineapple juice, pine nuts, hemp seeds, pineapple, oats, rice bran, spinach spaghetti, vegetable macaroni, lambsquarters, wheat germ, wheat, butternuts, oat bran muffins, rice cakes, dark rye flour, hearts of palm, whole grain pasta, loganberries, wheat bran, hibiscus tea, blackberries, brown rice, salmonberries, spelt, amaranth grain, whole wheat pancakes, multigrain bagels, triticale, sweet potato, hickorynuts, bulgur, pumpkin and squash seed kernels, whole wheat waffles, edamame, pecans, whole wheat bread, rose hips, whole triticale flour, formulated bar or granola bar (made with whole grain, nut, legume, or chocolate containing an appropriate manganese level), maple syrup, whole wheat flour, oat flour, brown rice flour, walnuts, winged bean leaves, rye, whole grain rolls, macadamia nuts, brown rice chips, chestnuts, tempeh, whole multigrain bread, chickpeas, whole wheat English muffins, chili beef soup, pineapple juice drink, Pacific oyster, beans, American grapes (slip skin), tofu, meatless chicken, muscadine grapes, bass, pumpernickel rolls, raspberries, Eppaw, quinoa, Piki bread made from blue cornmeal, immature seeds of lima bean, drumstick leaves, soybeans, walleye pike, hulled barley, whole wheat chapati or roti bread, whole wheat pita bread, oat bran, coconut meat, wheat bran bread, chia seeds, prickly pears, sesame butter, soy burgers, chrysanthemum, coconut milk, fiddlehead ferns, rice bran bread, peanuts, black tea, bean soup, papad, spinach, sea lion liver, burbot, drum, perch, smelt, sunfish, boysenberries, oolong tea, soybean curd cheese, amaranth leaves, immature seeds of cowpea, whole sesame seeds, flaxseed, okra, almonds, peanut flour, chunky minestrone soup, millet, buckwheat, medium rye flour, sorghum grain, pumpernickel bread, soba noodles, whole wheat naan bread, leafy tips of bitter gourd, rice milk drink, potato skin, and green tea. Foods containing appropriate manganese levels were not found in one food group (fats and oils) and were very few in seven food groups (pork products; dairy and egg products; beef products; lamb, veal, and game products; poultry products; spices and herbs; sausages and luncheon meats).