Did Decades of Glyphosate Use Have Selected for Resistant Amphibians in Agricultural Habitats?

Glyphosate-based herbicides are used worldwide, and glyphosate’s primary metabolite (aminomethylphosphonic acid: AMPA), is globally retrieved in surface waters. AMPA induces various sublethal effects on aquatic wildlife, including selective mortality, which suggests that glyphosate exposure may have selected for AMPA-resistant individuals. We tested this hypothesis using spined toads ( Bufo spinosus ), an amphibian found in a variety of habitats, from AMPA-exposed agricultural lands to AMPA-free forested areas. We predicted that the offspring of individuals originating from agricultural habitats would develop AMPA-resistance - and be less prone to develop adverse effects from- AMPA exposure. To investigate this question, the embryos and larvae of 40 spined toad pairs captured in agricultural and forest ponds were exposed either to an environmental relevant concentration of AMPA (0.4 µg L -1 ) or to control conditions (n=8160 embryos, n=240 tadpoles).  We monitored development durations, developmental abnormalities and morphology, measured across key developmental stages.  Although we observed significant effects of AMPA on fitness parameters in each group, these effects were not exacerbated in individuals from AMPA-free habitats.  We suggest that temporal and/or spatial dynamics of contamination, as well as gene flow between exposed and preserved populations, may affect our ability to detect adaptive responses of long-lived wildlife to environmental contamination.