Land use and land cover changes in the Mijikenda Kaya sacred forests of Coastal Kenya: impacts on culture and conservation of UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Abstract Land use and land cover (LULC) change detection is essential for understanding the dynamics of landscape patterns and the broader environmental and cultural implications. Over the past 30 years, the sacred Mijikenda Kaya forests have experienced significant LULC changes. Despite the importance of these changes, detailed analyses, their impacts, and the associated drivers have received limited scientific attention. In this study, we examine the trends in LULC changes from 1992 to 2022 and explore their effects on both the culture and conservation of two sacred Mijikenda Kaya forests: Kaya Kauma and Kaya Rabai, both of which are part of the nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites of outstanding international importance. To assess these changes, we utilized a combination of remote sensing data, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, field observations, and ground truthing. Our findings reveal that the Kaya ecosystem has undergone significant LULC and cultural changes over the last three decades. The primary changes include a dramatic loss of forest cover and water bodies, while areas of agriculture, mining, shrubland, and settlements have expanded. Specifically, the historical boundary areas of Kaya Kauma and Kaya Rabai experienced a forest cover loss of 46.0 ha (10.9%) and 895.7 ha (134.8%), respectively, while the current boundary areas saw forest cover reductions of 7.1 ha (9.4%) and 174.7 ha (26.3%) from 1992 to 2022. Key drivers of these changes include population growth, mining activities, agricultural expansion, settlement development, land encroachment, grazing, illegal logging, and the illicit cutting of trees for firewood and charcoal production. In addition to ecological changes, our study highlights a significant loss of cultural practices and traditional knowledge, primarily due to the erosion of cultural-spiritual beliefs and norms. Sacred ritual areas, once integral to the community's cultural practices, have been converted into settlements or privatized, severely reducing the opportunity for elders to maintain traditional customs. These cultural losses, coupled with the environmental degradation, underscore the urgent need to address both the decline in forest cover and the erosion of traditional knowledge for the sustainable management of the Kaya sacred forest landscapes. This study emphasizes the interconnectedness of ecological and cultural preservation and calls for a comprehensive approach to mitigate further land degradation and cultural loss, ensuring the long-term sustainability of these sacred sites.