"But Who is Watching?": Imaginary Audience Effects and Migrant Women’s Ludic Activities in Oamaru, New Zealand

Urban spaces offer various spontaneous and design-led opportunities for ludic-also referred as playful engagements. Yet, adult participation often remains constrained, and reasons are insufficiently theorized in urban design scholarship. This article reintroduces imaginary audience theory- the heightened perception of being observed and judged as an analytical lens for examining barriers to adult ludic engagement in public space. Drawing on qualitative research with nine south Asian migrant women participants from, the small town of Oamaru, New Zealand, the study analyses how internalized surveillance, cultural norms of respectability, and uncertainty about appropriate public behaviour inhibit playful action. Data were gathered through two phenomenology-based workshops and photovoice methods running through a year. The findings show that while the imaginary audience effect operates across all participants, it intensifies at the intersections of gender, migration status, and cultural difference, producing heightened constraints on ludic engagement. The article argues that urban designs having collaborative, convivial shared spaces and inclusive design elements can mitigate these psychological barriers by diffusing perceived scrutiny and normalising adult play. By synthesising insights from developmental psychology and ludic urbanism, the study advances a socio-psychological understanding of migrant women’s play in Oamaru and offers practical implications for designing more inclusive and equitable ludic urban environments.