Increased glycolysis is an early outcome of palmitate-mediated lipotoxicity

Abstract Palmitic acid is the most abundant saturated fatty acid in human serum. In cell culture systems, palmitate overload is considered a toxic stimulus, and promotes lipid accumulation, insulin resistance, endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, as well as cell death. An increased supply of fatty acids has also been shown to change the predominant form of the mitochondrial network, although the metabolic effects of this change are still unclear. Here, we aimed to uncover the early bioenergetic outcomes of lipotoxicity. We incubated hepatic PLC/PRF/5 cells with palmitate conjugated to BSA and followed real-time oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification for 6 hours. Palmitate increased glycolysis as soon as 1 hour after the stimulus, while oxygen consumption was not disturbed, despite overt mitochondrial fragmentation and cellular reductive imbalance. Palmitate only induced mitochondrial fragmentation if glucose and glutamine were available, while glycolytic enhancement did not require glutamine, showing it is not dependent on morphological changes. NAD(P)H levels were significantly abrogated in palmitate-treated cells. Knockdown of the mitochondrial NAD(P) transhydrogenase or addition of the mitochondrial oxidant-generator menadione in control cells modulated ATP production from glycolysis. Indeed, using selective inhibitors, we found that the production of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide at the I Q site of electron transport chain complex I is associated with the metabolic rewiring promoted by palmitate, while not changing mitochondrial oxygen consumption. In conclusion, we demonstrate that increased glycolytic flux linked to mitochondrially-generated redox imbalance is an early bioenergetic result of palmitate overload and lipotoxicity.