Rockfall modelling for Gebel El Qurnah archaeological sites at the West Bank of Luxor, Egypt using advanced remote sensing and geographic information system

The Gebel El Qurnah region at west Luxor in Egypt, designated as a UNESCO World Cultural and Natural Heritage Site in 1979, holds significant historical sites like the Valley of the Kings (VoK), El Deir El Bahari Cliffs/Hatshepsut Temple (DE-H), Deir El Madinah (DM), and the Valley of the Queens (QV). This thesis investigates the relation of rising human activity, particularly tourism, and the heightened risk of rockfalls at these sites. Events like concerts at iconic locations such as the Temple of Hatshepsut underscore concerns about structural integrity and highlight the need for effective management strategies to balance heritage preservation with modern tourism demands. This thesis investigates the integration of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (RS/GIS, open source/trial software) to mitigate rockfall hazards within Gebel El Qurnah sites, emblematic of a pivotal era in ancient Egyptian history. The study also addresses the UNESCO request from the Supreme Council for Antiquity (SCA) to cover the topography, geological components, and environmental factors that may be responsible for rockfall incidents there. Thus, a comprehensive GIS system was created using satellite imagery, GIS tools, and point clouds from the Terrestrial LASER Scanners (TLS) after being carefully screened for these variables. Field data were collected in the following field seasons: April 2011, October 2012, March 2013, and July 2015 to prepare inputs for rockfall modelling, which aim to identify and characterise potential rockfall source locations. This includes examining geological features such as rock types and joint/open fracture/tensile patterns, as well as measuring dip (strike or dip) angles. These data were used to verify the validity of geological and structural analyses and to prepare comprehensive geological maps of the region. By using principal component analysis (PCA) on ASTER images to successfully differentiate and identify the rock boundaries, the Correlation/Covariance (Corr./Cov.) method developed and found to be quite successful in distinguishing the carbonate sedimentary rocks (Tarawan Chalk, Esna Shale, and Thebes Formations) in the area. The Rule Classifier and Sequential Maximum Angle Convex Cone (SMACC, input: Corr. /Cov. image) methods for data processing and analysis helped to create the final geological map. Additionally, a regional structural overview of West Luxor is presented, focusing on fault systems and the Luxor Area Seismogenic Source. Structural settings in prominent locations like the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of El Deir El Bahari are analyzed. Automatic Lineament Extraction (ALE) methods are employed to extract lines from ASTER images, followed by lineament analysis in GIS using spatial statistics such as Linear Directional Mean (LDM) and Line Density (LD/SA) to understand the distribution and orientation of linear features. By mapping geological variables, accurate models are developed to predict potential rockfall scenarios, aiding in the identification of vulnerable areas and the implementation of effective mitigation strategies. This interdisciplinary approach offers valuable insights into the dynamic geological processes shaping the region, contributing to the preservation of these culturally significant sites. The LASER point clouds provide very highly accurate DEMs that are used in the calculations and primary predictions of breaklines like joints and cracks, and the steepest path method is used to predicate the trajectories. In addition, the mapping of Hatshepsut’s upper cliff was refined to identify erosion- and hazard-prone areas. The FARO Focus 3D scanner is used to document the temple to study the hazard location in the upper and middle portico of the temple. The paths and locations of impacts of falling rocks are then predicted using the gathered data as inputs for rockfall trajectory simulation models, such as the Rockfall programme side by side with the gravitational process path (GPP) models. The study's findings emphasise the crucial relationship between geological understanding and site management techniques in reducing the possibility of mishaps or injuries brought on by rockfalls. This thesis contributes to the preservation of cultural heritage like FARO LASER Documentation of Hatshepsut Temple as a case study and the safety of the temple and royal tombs visitors by incorporating geological-geomorphological-environmental insights into site protection strategies and raising visitor awareness of safety guidelines in the study area.