Sustainability measurement of early and late peach orchards based on energy balance, carbon, and water footprint at Imathia, Greece

Abstract Comparative environmental assessments between early and late peach varieties remain limited. This study measures the environmental sustainability of early and late peach orchards in Imathia, Greece, by estimating energy balance, carbon footprint, and water footprint indicators. Twenty-one peach orchards (10 early and 11 late varieties) were selected during the 2022–23 growing season. An adjusted Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach was employed to assess energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and water consumption. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney (M-W) tests were applied to assess differences between early and late peach orchards, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient ( rho ) was calculated to examine relationships among the production factors and the agri-environmental indicators. The analysis revealed that late peach orchards exhibited higher energy efficiency and productivity, attributed to their higher yield per hectare and optimized resource utilization. Early orchards demonstrated higher energy consumption and intensity, with fuels, irrigation, fertilizers, and machinery constituting the primary energy inputs. The carbon footprint for late orchards (7.43 kg CO 2 eq kg − 1 ) was substantially lower than that of early orchards (12.55 kg CO 2 eq kg − 1 ), indicating more efficient use of non-renewable energy sources. Blue water was lower for late orchards. In conclusion, late peach orchards are more adapted to local climatic conditions and more sustainable for crop selection. The results inform farmers, agronomists, and policymakers on sustainable varietal selection and resource management for peach production in Mediterranean environments. It is suggested that early orchards should be substituted with more resilient varieties to address the challenges posed by climate change.