Dent Overlap in Hailpads: Error Estimation and Measurement Correction

AbstractThe measurement of the physical characteristics of hailstones reaching the ground is usually carried out by means of hailpads, on which the impact of hailstones leaves dents. Hailstone dents provide information about parameters, such as the number N of hailstones, their size M, and their kinetic energy E. In the case of intense hailfalls, however, the dents often overlap and the final measurement may not be totally reliable. This paper presents a computerized simulation with the aim of assessing measurement errors caused by dent overlap. The simulated dents represent several random hailfalls with both exponential size distributions and monodispersed size distributions. The simulated hailpads were measured following the procedure employed in the case of hailpads exposed to authentic hailfalls, and it was thus possible to assess the error due to dent overlap. The results show that dent overlap makes it impossible to measure all the dents, which means that in a real hailfall the number of hailstones registered will often be lower than the number of hailstones that actually hit the ground (up to 25% may go undetected). Consequently, the energy and mass of the hailstones are also underestimated (they may be up to 50% higher than the values registered on a hailpad). The maximum size registered, however, does not depend on the degree of overlapping and neither does the slope parameter λ of the exponential distribution, except when λ takes higher values. Finally, the authors suggest a heuristic correction of the data obtained by real hailpads based on the results of the simulations. An example is provided that applies these corrections to the 228 hailfalls registered by the Italian hailpad network over a period of 10 yr. The results show that, on average, the correction applied because of overlapping increases the number of hailstones in 3.2%, the mass in 1.9%, and the energy in 5.4%. However, there are cases in which these corrections reached much higher values of up to 6.9% in N and M, and up to 25.2% in E. It is therefore advisable to correct dent overlap before carrying out a regional climatic study of hail, since this study would certainly be affected by the errors accumulated by all the hailpads.